Head and Neck Cancers: What They Are, Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

This guide explains Head and Neck Cancers — how they develop in the head and neck region of the body, common causes and symptoms, and the care and treatment options people may expect. Head and neck cancer describes uncontrolled, abnormal growth of cells in areas such as the mouth, throat, larynx (voice box), sinuses, and salivary glands. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment improve outcomes: many patients achieve cure or long-term control when disease is found at an early stage. If you have persistent symptoms such as a mouth sore, a lump in the neck, or lasting hoarseness, talk with your clinician about diagnosis and treatment options as soon as possible.

What are Head and Neck Cancers?

Head and neck cancers are a group of cancers that start in the tissues and organs of the head and neck region — including the mouth, throat, voice box (larynx), nasal cavity and sinuses, salivary glands, and nearby structures in the neck. Most cancers in these sites arise from the lining cells (squamous cells), but some areas — notably the salivary glands — can have many different tumor types. These cancers are usually named for the site where they begin (for example, oral cavity cancer or laryngeal cancer).

Below are the main anatomic categories, with common histology and typical red-flag symptoms to watch for.

Oral Cavity (mouth)

Includes the lips, front two‑thirds of the tongue, gums, inner cheeks, floor of mouth, and hard palate. Most oral cavity cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. Common signs: non‑healing mouth sore or ulcer (>2 weeks), a lump or thickening, pain or numbness, and difficulty chewing. Tongue and lip cancers are often diagnosed earlier because lesions are visible or felt during routine oral exams.

Oropharynx and Nasopharynx (upper throat and back of nose)

The oropharynx includes the base of tongue, tonsils, and soft palate; the nasopharynx is the uppermost throat behind the nose. Oropharyngeal cancers are increasingly linked to HPV infection and often present with a painless neck lump or sore throat. Nasopharyngeal cancer can be harder to detect early and may cause nasal congestion, ear fullness, or hearing changes.

Larynx (voice box) — Laryngeal cancer

The larynx houses the vocal cords and protects the airway. Most laryngeal cancers are squamous cell carcinoma. Early warning signs include persistent hoarseness or change in voice lasting more than three weeks, throat pain, or difficulty breathing or swallowing.

Paranasal Sinuses and Nasal Cavity

Tumors in the nasal cavity or sinuses are uncommon and may cause nasal obstruction, nosebleeds, facial swelling, or numbness. These cancers are less likely than some other head and neck cancers to have distant spread at diagnosis, but they can invade local structures and require detailed imaging for planning.

Salivary Glands

Major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, sublingual) and many minor salivary glands sit throughout the head and neck. Salivary gland tumors are a varied group — many are benign, but malignant salivary gland cancers do occur and require biopsy and specialist management. Presenting features include a painless lump near the jaw or in the cheek, facial weakness if the facial nerve is involved, or persistent pain.

In short, most head neck cancers are squamous cell carcinomas arising from epithelial cells lining the mouth, throat, and larynx, while salivary gland tumors represent a distinct set of glandular cancers. If you notice a persistent oral lesion, a new lump in the neck, prolonged hoarseness, or unexplained nasal symptoms, consult your healthcare provider for evaluation — see the Symptoms and Diagnosis sections below for next steps.

What Are the Causes of Head and Neck Cancers?

Head and neck cancers most often occur in adults and become more common with age, though they can affect people of any age. Multiple factors raise the risk of developing a head neck cancer; some are behavioral or environmental, others are infectious or genetic. Understanding risk factors can help guide prevention and screening decisions.

Tobacco and alcohol

Tobacco use (smoking cigarettes, cigars, pipes, and smokeless tobacco) is the single largest preventable cause of many neck cancers and cancers of the mouth, throat, and larynx. Heavy alcohol use multiplies the risk when combined with tobacco. Quitting tobacco and reducing alcohol intake are the most effective ways to lower risk.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) and other infections

Persistent infection with high‑risk HPV strains is a major cause of oropharyngeal cancers (tonsils, base of tongue) and has driven rising rates of HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer in recent years. Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is linked to nasopharyngeal cancer in certain regions. Vaccination against HPV can prevent many HPV-related throat cancers.

Occupational and environmental exposures

Long‑term exposure to certain chemicals (wood dust, nickel, chromium), asbestos, and heavy air pollution increases risk for some head neck cancers, particularly sinonasal tumors. Radiation exposure to the head and neck (therapeutic or high-dose environmental) is also a recognized risk factor.

Diet, oral health, and lifestyle

Poor oral hygiene, chronic irritation (for example, from poorly fitting dentures), and diets low in fruits and vegetables may modestly increase risk. Evidence linking processed foods broadly to head and neck cancers is limited; emphasize balanced nutrition and regular dental care as part of prevention.

Genetics and other factors

A small proportion of cases reflect inherited susceptibility or family history. Hormonal, immunologic, and other host factors can also influence risk. Overall, combinations of exposures (for example, tobacco plus alcohol) and infections (HPV or EBV) account for the majority of preventable head and neck cancers.

Practical prevention steps: stop tobacco use, limit alcohol, get HPV vaccination according to guidelines, practice good oral hygiene, use protective measures at work, and seek medical attention for persistent symptoms. If you are concerned about risk factors (for example, long-term tobacco use or occupational exposures), discuss screening and risk-reduction strategies with your healthcare team.

What Are the Symptoms of Head and Neck Cancers?

Head and neck cancers may cause clear symptoms or be silent early on. Below are common warning signs grouped by likely site and the “red flag” symptoms that should prompt prompt evaluation (seek medical attention if symptoms persist for more than 2–3 weeks).

• Neck: A new, painless lump or swelling in the neck is a key red flag and can be the first sign of a neck cancer or metastatic spread from an oral or throat primary.
• Oral cavity (mouth, tongue, lips): Non‑healing ulcers or lesions in the mouth, red or white patches, numbness, pain, or difficulty moving the tongue. Any mouth sore that does not heal within two weeks should be examined.
• Throat and tonsils (oropharynx): Persistent sore throat, difficulty swallowing, or a lump in the throat; HPV‑related oropharyngeal cancers may present with a painless neck lump.
• Larynx / voice box: Persistent hoarseness or change in voice lasting more than three weeks, throat pain, or breathing difficulty are important signs of laryngeal cancer.
• Nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses: Nasal obstruction, frequent nosebleeds, facial swelling or numbness, and persistent sinus symptoms on one side — particularly if they are new or progressive.
• Ear-related: Ear pain, persistent ear fullness, ringing, or hearing loss—especially unilateral—can be a sign of nasopharyngeal or other nearby cancers.
• Breathing and coughing: New or persistent coughing, coughing up blood, or unexplained breathing difficulty may be associated with certain head and neck tumors.

Red-flag summary: persistent hoarseness, a non‑healing oral ulcer (>2 weeks), or a new neck lump — these warrant urgent assessment. Example: a 55‑year‑old smoker notices a painless neck lump; this should prompt evaluation with an ENT specialist. If you have any of these symptoms lasting more than 2–3 weeks, contact your healthcare provider for examination and referral for diagnosis.

How is Head and Neck Cancer Diagnosed?

Early diagnosis of head and neck cancer improves treatment options and outcomes. Diagnosis typically follows a stepwise approach led by a clinician (often an ENT/head and neck specialist) and the head and neck oncology team.

• Clinical examination: A careful physical exam of the head, neck, mouth, throat, and larynx is the first step. Your clinician will look for ulcers, lumps, asymmetry, or nerve changes and review risk factors (tobacco, alcohol, HPV exposure).
• Endoscopy: Flexible or rigid endoscopy allows direct visualization of the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, hypopharynx, and larynx. Endoscopy helps locate suspicious lesions for biopsy and may be performed in clinic or the operating room.
• Biopsy and pathology: Obtaining tissue for pathology is the definitive diagnostic step. Depending on the site, clinicians may perform an incisional or excisional biopsy, or a needle biopsy for salivary gland or neck lesions. Pathology will identify the cell type (for example, squamous cell carcinoma) and often includes important molecular tests such as p16/HPV status for oropharyngeal cancers.
• Imaging and staging: Imaging defines the local extent and spread. Typical studies include contrast CT (bone detail, sinonasal assessment), MRI (soft-tissue detail, base of skull), and PET‑CT (whole‑body metabolic staging for advanced disease or recurrent cancer). Choice of imaging depends on the suspected site and clinical question.
• Laboratory and supportive tests: Blood and urine tests help assess general health, organ function, and fitness for anesthesia or systemic therapy. Additional tests (audiology, dental assessment, nutritional evaluation) are often part of pre-treatment planning.

Typical diagnostic pathways (examples):

• A painless neck lump: clinical exam → ultrasound ± needle biopsy → contrast CT or PET‑CT for staging → ENT evaluation and definitive biopsy if needed.
• Persistent hoarseness: laryngoscopic exam → targeted biopsy of suspicious vocal cord lesion → MRI for local extent if cancer confirmed.

Notes for patients: a biopsy is the most reliable method to confirm cancer and determine the exact cell type and molecular markers (such as HPV/p16). Ask your care team about HPV testing, the recommended imaging for staging, and when your case will be reviewed by a multidisciplinary team to plan treatment.

How is Head and Neck Cancer Treated?

Treatment for head and neck cancer is individualized and decided by a multidisciplinary team to balance cure, function (voice, swallowing, breathing), and quality of life. The main modalities are surgery, radiotherapy, and systemic therapy (chemotherapy, targeted agents, immunotherapy). Often these treatments are used alone for early disease or combined for more advanced cancers to improve local control and survival.

Goals of treatment

Curative treatment aims to remove or eradicate the tumour and preserve function. In some cases (locally advanced or metastatic disease) the goal may be long‑term control or palliation to relieve symptoms and maintain quality of life.

Surgery

Surgical removal of the tumor is often the primary option for accessible early cancers and some salivary gland malignancies. Surgery can be curative when the tumor is localized; it may be followed by reconstruction and rehabilitative care (speech and swallowing therapy) to restore function.

Radiotherapy

Radiation therapy is used alone for some early laryngeal and oropharyngeal cancers or combined with surgery and/or systemic therapy for higher‑risk disease. Modern techniques (IMRT, proton therapy in select centers) aim to spare surrounding normal tissue and preserve voice and swallowing when possible.

Systemic therapy: chemotherapy, targeted agents, and immunotherapy

Chemotherapy is commonly used with radiotherapy (concurrent chemoradiation) for advanced squamous cell cancers of the head and neck. For recurrent or metastatic disease, targeted therapies (for specific molecular alterations) and immunotherapy (checkpoint inhibitors) are important options. Your oncology team will discuss the expected benefits and side effects.

Typical approaches by stage/site (examples)

Early-stage laryngeal cancer: radiotherapy or limited surgery to preserve voice. Early oral cavity cancer: surgical excision often with sentinel node assessment. Advanced-stage tumors: combined modality therapy (surgery + radiotherapy or chemoradiation) tailored to tumor extent and patient fitness.

Rehabilitation and survivorship care

Effective treatment includes pre‑treatment dental care, nutritional support, and post‑treatment rehabilitation: speech and swallowing therapy, dental and prosthetic services, psychosocial support, and long‑term surveillance for recurrence and second primaries.

Clinical trials and specialist team care

Ask your multidisciplinary team about clinical trials — trials may offer access to novel therapies, especially for recurrent or metastatic cancers. Treatment decisions consider the tumour’s histology (for example, squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type), staging, molecular markers, and the patient’s overall health and preferences.

If you or a loved one is facing head and neck cancer, request a discussion with the head and neck oncology team about expected outcomes, possible side effects, rehabilitation needs, and available clinical trials to make an informed treatment choice.

What Methods Are Used in the Treatment of Head and Neck Cancers?

Treatment for head neck cancer is tailored to the tumor’s site, stage (using the TNM system), histology, and the patient’s overall health and goals. Options include surgery, radiotherapy, and systemic therapy (chemotherapy, targeted agents, immunotherapy); clinicians frequently use combinations of these modalities to maximize cure rates while preserving function (voice, swallowing, breathing).

Surgical treatment

Surgery aims to remove the tumor and any involved neck nodes. For early oral cavity or some laryngeal tumors, surgery can be curative. Reconstructive techniques (flaps, grafts) and neck dissection are often part of surgical plans when needed. Surgery may be followed by radiotherapy or chemoradiation if pathology shows high‑risk features.

Chemotherapy and systemic therapy

Chemotherapy is used with radiotherapy (concurrent chemoradiation) for many advanced squamous cell carcinomas, and as systemic treatment for recurrent or metastatic disease. Targeted therapies and immunotherapies are options for selected patients and can be offered within a clinical trial or standard care pathways for recurrent/metastatic head and neck cancers.

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy (often with advanced techniques such as IMRT) is a mainstay for organ preservation (for example, many laryngeal and oropharyngeal tumors) and for adjuvant treatment after surgery. Radiotherapy can treat the primary tumor and regional neck nodes while sparing normal tissues to protect voice and swallowing where possible.

How stage guides treatment

Early-stage (T1–T2, N0) head and neck cancers are often managed with a single modality (surgery or radiotherapy) aiming for cure and function preservation. Advanced-stage disease (larger T stage and/or nodal involvement: stages III–IV) commonly requires combined modality treatment — surgery plus postoperative radiotherapy or chemoradiation, or definitive chemoradiation when surgery would cause excessive functional loss.

Rehabilitation and supportive care

Effective treatment plans include pre‑ and post‑treatment support: dental care, nutritional support, and speech and swallowing therapy. Reconstruction after surgery and ongoing rehabilitation are crucial to restore voice and swallow function and optimize quality of life after treatment.

Clinical trials and specialist team care

Ask about clinical trials — trials can provide access to new systemic agents or radiotherapy approaches, especially for recurrent or metastatic disease. Decisions are best made by a multidisciplinary team (surgeons, radiation oncologists, medical oncologists, speech therapists, and supportive care specialists) that considers tumor biology (for example, squamous cell carcinoma vs. salivary gland cancers), patient preferences, and expected functional outcomes.

If you or a loved one is facing neck cancer or another head and neck malignancy, discuss with your care team which treatments are likely to offer the best balance of cure and preservation of voice and swallowing, and whether clinical trials or specialist rehabilitation services are appropriate for your situation.