Inside Ankle Replacement Surgery: How the Worn Joint Surfaces Are Removed and Replaced

The stairs are the tell. Someone who has lived with a worn ankle for years will often say the pain is bearable on flat ground, then describe the small pause at the bottom of a staircase, the hand reaching for the rail, the slow calculation of which foot goes first. That pause is usually what brings them to a surgeon’s office with a folder of X-rays and one question: what would actually happen inside my ankle if I said yes?

This article walks through ankle replacement surgery step by step, from the pre-operative planning to the moment the last stitch goes in, and then through the weeks that follow. It does not argue for or against the operation. It explains what is removed, what is put in its place, why some people are steered toward a different procedure, and what the mainstream evidence does and does not say about recovery.

Every number here comes from a named source, and every decision described belongs to you and the team looking after you.

What does ankle replacement surgery step by step actually involve?

Strip away the technical language and the operation has a simple shape. The ankle is a hinge formed where the shin bone (the tibia) sits on top of the ankle bone (the talus). Both surfaces are normally coated in cartilage, the glassy tissue that lets bone glide on bone. When that cartilage wears through, the two bones grind, and the joint stiffens, swells and hurts. Ankle replacement, also called total ankle arthroplasty, removes the damaged surfaces and covers each bone end with a manufactured part.

According to the MedlinePlus patient encyclopedia, the surgeon makes an incision over the ankle, moves the tendons and nerves aside, removes the damaged bone and cartilage, and fixes metal components to the tibia and talus with a plastic piece between them so the new surfaces can slide against each other. The procedure is done under general anesthesia or a regional block that numbs the leg, and the patient is usually in the operating room for a few hours.

The purpose is worth stating plainly, because it shapes expectations. Replacement is done to reduce pain while keeping some up-and-down motion at the ankle. It is not done to create a joint that feels twenty years younger, and it is not a treatment for sprains, instability or ordinary aches. Guidelines from the NHS and Mayo Clinic place joint replacement at the end of a pathway that starts with activity changes, weight management, physical therapy, supportive footwear and, where a clinician judges it appropriate, medicines or injections.

The rest of this explainer takes the operation apart in order: why the joint wears, how the team plans, what happens on the table, how the implant is designed, and what recovery usually looks like.

Why the ankle wears out: the surfaces that get replaced

Ankle arthritis is unusual among the big joints. Hip and knee arthritis is mostly the slow, age-related kind. Ankle arthritis, by contrast, very often follows an old injury: a bad fracture, repeated severe sprains, or a joint that healed slightly out of line and then wore unevenly for decades. Doctors call this post-traumatic arthritis, meaning wear that began with an injury. Inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, where the immune system attacks the joint lining, are another route.

Whatever the cause, the end result is the same, and Mayo Clinic describes it clearly for osteoarthritis in general: cartilage breaks down, the bone beneath thickens and forms spurs, the joint lining becomes inflamed, and the joint loses its smooth range of movement. In the ankle, that means the dome of the talus and the flat undersurface of the tibia stop gliding and start catching.

Two features of ankle anatomy matter for surgery. First, the joint surface is small, roughly the size of a large postage stamp, yet it carries the whole body’s weight with every step. That concentrates force and leaves little margin for error when fitting an implant. Second, the talus has a limited blood supply and no muscles attached to it, so it heals more slowly than bone elsewhere and can weaken if its circulation is disturbed.

These realities explain why surgeons scrutinize the quality and alignment of the bone before operating, and why a person with a badly tilted or collapsed talus may be advised toward a different procedure. The surfaces being replaced are not just worn; the bone around them has often been reshaped by years of abnormal loading, and the operation has to correct that as well as resurface the joint.

Before the operation: imaging, planning and the pre-op check

Most of the decisions in ankle replacement are made before anyone picks up a scalpel. The planning stage usually starts with standing X-rays, which show how the bones line up when they are actually bearing weight. A film taken lying down can hide a tilt that appears the moment a person stands. Many surgeons add a CT scan, a detailed cross-sectional X-ray, to measure bone quality and the exact shape of the tibia and talus. Some use this to build a patient-specific cutting guide, a plastic template shaped to the individual’s bones.

Alignment is the central question. If the heel sits inward or outward relative to the leg, an implant placed on that foundation will load unevenly and may loosen. Surgeons therefore look at the whole limb, from hip to toes, and may plan a tendon lengthening, a heel bone realignment or a correction of a stiff flat foot in the same sitting or as a staged operation beforehand.

The pre-operative medical check follows the same pattern as other major orthopedic surgery. MedlinePlus notes that you will be asked about all medicines and supplements, and that you may be asked to stop certain ones before surgery; that conversation belongs entirely to the surgical and prescribing team, and nothing should be changed without their instruction. Blood sugar control, smoking, skin condition around the ankle and circulation in the legs are all assessed because each affects wound healing.

Practical preparation matters too. MedlinePlus advises arranging help at home, since you will not be able to put weight on the foot for a period after surgery, and clearing walkways so a walker or crutches can be used safely. People who plan this stage carefully tend to describe the early weeks as manageable rather than chaotic.

Ankle replacement surgery step by step: what happens in the operating room

Once anesthesia is established, the leg is cleaned, a tourniquet is often applied to reduce bleeding, and the sequence begins. The steps below describe the common front-of-ankle approach; some implant systems use an incision on the outer side instead, but the logic is identical.

• Exposure. An incision several inches long is made over the front of the ankle. The surgeon works between the tendons that lift the foot, gently retracting the large nerve and artery that run across the front of the joint. This is the most delicate part of the approach, because the skin here is thin and the nerve lies close to the surface.

• Removing the worn surfaces. Bone spurs are cleared and the joint capsule is opened. Using a jig, an alignment frame pinned to the shin, the surgeon makes a flat cut across the end of the tibia and a matching cut across the top of the talus, removing the damaged cartilage together with a thin slice of bone. Only enough bone is taken to seat the implant; preserving bone keeps future options open.
• Trial fitting. Trial components, temporary versions of the implant, are inserted so the surgeon can check size, alignment, stability and range of motion under direct vision and on X-ray.
• Final implantation. The metal tibial and talar components are fitted, usually with a textured surface that the bone grows into over time. The plastic spacer is placed between them.
• Balancing and closure. Tight structures may be released so the joint moves evenly. The wound is closed in layers and the leg is placed in a padded splint.

The whole sequence typically takes two to three hours, a range MedlinePlus gives for this operation, though complexity and any added procedures change it.

What the implant is made of and how it stays in place

A modern ankle implant has three parts. The tibial component is a flat metal plate with a stem or pegs that anchor it into the shin bone. The talar component is a curved metal dome that mimics the natural top of the talus. Between them sits a spacer made of ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene, a dense medical plastic chosen because it wears slowly against polished metal. In some designs the plastic is fixed to the tibial plate; in others it floats between the two metal parts, a so-called mobile bearing.

The metals are usually cobalt-chromium alloy or titanium alloy, both long used in hip and knee implants. The surfaces facing bone are often coated or roughened so that living bone can grow into the texture over the following months. This biological grip is why surgeons protect the joint from full weight in the early weeks: the implant is mechanically stable on day one, but the bone-implant bond matures over time.

Two concepts come up repeatedly in follow-up conversations. Loosening means the bond between implant and bone has failed and the part shifts. Subsidence means the component has sunk into softer bone beneath it, most often on the talar side where the bone is smaller and less well supplied with blood. Both are monitored with periodic X-rays, and both are among the reasons a replacement may eventually need revision, which is a second operation to adjust or exchange components.

Nobody can promise how long an individual implant will last. Johns Hopkins notes that ankle implants have historically had shorter lifespans than hip and knee implants, and that design and technique have improved over time. The honest position is that durability varies with bone quality, alignment, activity and factors not fully understood, and that regular imaging follow-up is part of living with the joint.

Ankle replacement vs fusion: how the two operations compare

Anyone considering replacement will hear about fusion, formally called arthrodesis, which means permanently joining the tibia and talus into one solid bone. Fusion has been the standard operation for end-stage ankle arthritis for decades, and it remains the recommended choice for many people. Understanding the trade-offs is the single most useful piece of homework before a consultation.

Feature	Ankle replacement	Ankle fusion
What is done	Worn surfaces removed; metal and plastic implant fitted	Worn surfaces removed; bones fixed together with screws or plates until they heal as one
Ankle motion afterward	Some up-and-down motion preserved	Up-and-down motion at the ankle lost; nearby joints compensate
Main long-term concern	Implant loosening, wear or subsidence; possible revision	Extra load on neighboring foot joints, which may develop arthritis over years
Bone quality needed	Good bone stock and correctable alignment	Tolerates poorer bone and more severe deformity
Typical candidates	Lower-demand adults with acceptable alignment	Younger, heavier or very active people; severe deformity; prior infection
Follow-up	Periodic X-rays for the life of the implant	Until the fusion has healed, then as needed

Johns Hopkins summarizes the core difference: fusion reliably relieves pain but eliminates motion at the joint, while replacement aims to relieve pain while keeping motion, at the cost of relying on an implant that may wear or loosen. Neither option is universally better. A fused ankle can be remarkably functional for walking on flat ground yet feel stiff on slopes and stairs; a replaced ankle may move more naturally yet carry a lifetime of monitoring. Which trade-off suits a given person depends on age, weight, occupation, bone quality, deformity and personal priorities, and that weighing belongs in the consulting room.

Who is usually offered ankle replacement, and who is usually asked to wait

Surgeons think about candidacy in two layers: is this the right operation for this joint, and is this the right moment for this person.

On the first layer, the typical candidate has end-stage arthritis of the ankle, confirmed on imaging, with pain that has not responded to non-surgical care over a meaningful period. The NHS pathway for osteoarthritis describes surgery as an option when other treatments have not helped enough and symptoms substantially limit daily life. The bone should be of reasonable quality, the alignment of the leg and heel should be correctable, the ligaments should be able to hold the new joint steady, and the skin and circulation should be healthy enough to heal an incision over the front of the ankle. Lower physical demand tends to favor replacement, because heavy impact loads the implant.

On the second layer, several situations commonly lead a team to advise waiting or to recommend fusion instead:

• Active infection anywhere in the body, or a history of infection in the ankle joint.
• Severe deformity that cannot be corrected, or a talus that has partly collapsed from loss of blood supply.
• Poorly controlled diabetes or nerve damage in the feet, both of which impair healing and sensation.
• Current smoking, which reduces blood flow to healing skin and bone.
• Very heavy manual work or high-impact sport that the person intends to continue.
• Significant obesity, which increases load on a small implant and raises wound complication risk.

None of these is an absolute verdict. Some are modifiable, and a period of work on blood sugar, smoking or weight may change the picture. The purpose of the wait is to lower the chance of complications, not to deny care, and a good team will explain exactly which factor is driving the recommendation.

Is ankle replacement a difficult surgery? Risks in plain language

People often ask whether this is a big operation. From the surgeon’s side, ankle replacement is technically demanding: the joint is small, the margin for alignment error is narrow, and the skin over the front of the ankle is thin and easily damaged. Most surgeons who offer it have done additional training in foot and ankle surgery. From the patient’s side, it is major surgery with a long recovery, but it is not usually a physiologically stressful operation in the way that open heart or bowel surgery can be.

The risks are the ones described by MedlinePlus and Johns Hopkins for this procedure, and they fall into a few groups. Wound problems come first, because the incision sits over thin skin with limited blood supply; delayed healing or breakdown can expose the implant. Infection can be superficial or deep, and deep infection around an implant is serious. Nerve injury may leave numbness or tingling on the top of the foot, sometimes permanently. Blood vessel injury is uncommon but possible given the artery crossing the joint. During the bone cuts, the malleoli, the bony knobs on either side of the ankle, can fracture and need fixation.

Longer term, the implant may loosen or subside, the plastic may wear, or the joint may stiffen with scar tissue. Some people need a further operation, which could be a revision replacement or a conversion to fusion. Blood clots in the leg veins, called deep vein thrombosis, are a recognized risk after any lower-limb surgery, and clinicians take preventive steps.

How often each of these occurs varies widely between reports, and the sources allowed here do not give a single figure. What the evidence supports is that experience, careful selection and attention to alignment reduce complications; it does not support any promise of a trouble-free outcome.

The first days: swelling, pain and the most painful day after ankle surgery

Many people wake from ankle replacement feeling surprisingly comfortable, then are surprised again the following day. The reason is pharmacological rather than mysterious. A regional nerve block, an injection of local anesthetic around the nerves of the leg, is commonly used alongside general anesthesia and can keep the leg numb for the better part of a day. When it wears off, usually overnight or the next morning, the full sensation of a bone operation arrives at once.

This is why, when people search for the most painful day, the honest answer is that there is no fixed day, but the first two to three days are typically the most intense, with the transition off the block often the hardest stretch. The team anticipates this with a plan that may combine several classes of medicine, elevation and ice. Which medicines, in what amounts and for how long, is entirely a matter for the prescribing clinician, and any concern about the plan should go straight back to them.

Swelling follows its own timetable. Fluid gathers in the foot and ankle for several days and can persist for months at a lower level. Keeping the foot raised above the level of the heart for much of the day in the first week is the single most effective non-drug measure for both swelling and pain; gravity drains the limb and eases the pressure that drives throbbing.

MedlinePlus notes that many people go home within a day or two of surgery. Before leaving, expect to be taught how to move with a walker or crutches without putting weight on the foot, how to keep the splint dry, and what wound and clot warning signs to watch for.

Total ankle replacement recovery time: what the weeks and months usually look like

Recovery unfolds in stages, and the stages are defined less by the calendar than by what the bone and soft tissue are ready for. The ranges below are typical patterns described by MedlinePlus and Johns Hopkins; an individual plan may be faster or slower, and the team’s instructions override anything written here.

Protection phase. After the operation the ankle is held in a splint or cast, and the foot is kept off the ground. MedlinePlus states that you may not be able to put weight on the ankle for several weeks, and that crutches or a walker will be needed during that time. Stitches or staples are usually removed once the wound has sealed, commonly around two weeks.

Transition phase. When X-rays and wound healing allow, the cast gives way to a removable boot and progressive weight-bearing begins. Physical therapy starts with gentle range-of-motion exercises, then adds strength and balance work. This phase often runs from roughly six weeks to three months after surgery.

Consolidation phase. Walking in ordinary shoes, building endurance and returning to low-impact activity occupy the following months. Johns Hopkins describes complete recovery as taking six months to a year, and many people notice continued improvement in stiffness and confidence throughout that period.

Two practical points shape these months. Driving is usually delayed until the boot is off, the leg is strong enough for emergency braking, and no medicine impairs reaction time; the team decides this. Swelling at the end of the day is normal for a long time and is not by itself a sign of trouble. Recovery is a marathon paced by biology, and people who understand that from the start tend to describe it as tolerable rather than disheartening.

Walking after ankle replacement: how long until you walk normally?

This is the question underneath almost every other question, so it deserves a careful answer rather than a hopeful one.

Walking returns in layers. In the protection phase, walking means moving on crutches or a walker with the operated foot held off the ground. Once weight-bearing is permitted, the first steps are in a boot, usually with support, and they feel stiff and unfamiliar because the ankle has been immobilized and the calf has weakened. Over the following weeks the boot comes off, the gait pattern is retrained, and a limp gradually fades as strength and confidence return.

A recognizable, comfortable walking pattern without aids commonly emerges somewhere between three and six months, within the six-month to one-year recovery window that Johns Hopkins describes. Whether that walking pattern feels normal depends on what normal was before surgery. Someone who limped for a decade may find that the new pattern feels different rather than simply better, and physical therapists spend real effort on unlearning protective habits that the brain adopted years earlier.

Distance and terrain follow. Flat ground comes first, then uneven surfaces, slopes and stairs. Stairs are worth a specific mention because they demand the up-and-down motion that replacement is designed to preserve; many people notice improvement here earlier than they expected, though the range of movement in a replaced ankle is still typically less than in a healthy one.

The evidence does not support any promise that walking will feel completely natural or that any particular timepoint applies to a given person. What it does support is that motion preservation, consistent therapy and gradual loading all contribute, and that the trajectory usually continues well past the first anniversary of the operation.

What not to do after ankle replacement surgery

Most recovery advice is about what to do. The list of what to avoid is shorter, and every item on it protects either the wound, the implant or the person.

• Do not put weight on the foot before you are told to. Early loading can shift components before bone has grown into them, and it can strain a wound that is still knitting. This includes brief steps to the bathroom without aids.
• Do not get the splint, cast or fresh wound wet. Moisture softens healing skin and invites infection. Waterproof covers and sponge bathing are the usual workaround until the team clears showering.
• Do not let the leg hang down for long periods. Sitting with the foot on the floor for an hour pools fluid in the ankle and worsens both swelling and pain. Elevation is the rule in the early weeks.
• Do not smoke or use nicotine products. Nicotine constricts small blood vessels and is consistently linked with wound and bone healing problems after orthopedic surgery.
• Do not stop, start or adjust any prescribed medicine on your own. Clot-prevention medicines in particular are timed deliberately; questions go to the prescriber.
• Do not skip physical therapy or push through sharp pain during it. Under-doing therapy leaves stiffness; overdoing it inflames tissue. The therapist calibrates the middle path.
• Do not resume high-impact activity without a specific conversation. Running and jumping load a small implant heavily. Many surgeons advise lower-impact exercise for the life of the joint, and the guidance is individual.

Long-term, the one habit that matters most is keeping follow-up appointments even when the ankle feels fine. Loosening and wear are often silent at first and are picked up on routine X-rays long before they cause symptoms.

What people often get wrong about ankle replacement

Several beliefs come up so often that correcting them is a public service.

“It is just like a hip or knee replacement.” The principle is the same, but the ankle joint is far smaller, carries higher force per square inch, has thinner skin over it and rests on a bone with a fragile blood supply. Recovery is longer, weight-bearing is delayed rather than immediate, and implant durability has historically been shorter, as Johns Hopkins notes.

“Fusion is the old-fashioned option.” Fusion remains a first-line recommendation for many people, particularly the young, the heavy, the very active and those with severe deformity or prior infection. It is a considered choice, not a fallback.

“I will be walking within a week.” Weight-bearing is usually held back for several weeks so bone can bond with the implant. Walking, in the everyday sense, returns over months.

“Replacement fixes ankle instability or old sprains.” The operation treats arthritis, meaning worn joint surfaces. Instability from stretched ligaments is a different problem with different treatments, though ligament repair is sometimes added when a replacement is done.

“Once it is in, I never need to think about it.” An implant is monitored for life. Periodic X-rays look for loosening, wear and bone changes, and some people need revision surgery years later.

“Swelling means something has gone wrong.” Swelling that rises through the day and settles overnight is expected for months. Swelling that is sudden, one-sided in the calf, or paired with redness, heat or fever is a different matter and belongs in the next section.

The pattern across these myths is a tendency to import expectations from other joints or from athletic injuries. The ankle rewards people who learn its own rules.

Questions to ask your care team before ankle replacement

A good consultation is a conversation, and the most useful questions are the ones that reveal how the recommendation was reached. Consider bringing a written list and asking permission to take notes or bring someone with you.

• Why are you recommending replacement rather than fusion for my ankle specifically, and what features of my bone, alignment or lifestyle drove that?
• What is the state of my talus and my bone quality on imaging, and does anything about them raise your concern?
• Will any additional procedures, such as tendon lengthening or heel realignment, be done at the same time, and why?
• Which approach and implant design do you plan to use, and what is your own experience with this operation?
• What are the main complications you see, and what is your plan if the wound heals slowly or an infection develops?
• How long do you expect me to be non-weight-bearing, and how will you decide when I can progress?
• What will the pain plan look like, who manages it after discharge, and who do I call with questions?
• What clot-prevention measures will be used, and for how long?
• When can I realistically expect to shower, drive, return to work and travel?
• What activities will you advise me to avoid permanently, and which can I return to?
• How often will I need X-ray follow-up, and what would prompt a revision discussion?
• If I decide to wait, what would you want me to work on in the meantime, and what would change your recommendation?

Answers should be specific to you. If a response feels generic, it is reasonable to ask how it applies to your imaging and your goals. Seeking a second opinion is normal for elective surgery and does not offend a competent surgeon.

When to call your doctor after ankle replacement surgery

Most of recovery is uneventful discomfort, but a few signs should never be waited out. Contact the surgical team the same day, or seek emergency care if the team cannot be reached, for any of the following.

• Fever, chills or a general sense of being unwell, particularly in the first weeks.
• Wound changes: spreading redness, increasing warmth, pus or cloudy fluid, a foul smell, or edges pulling apart. Exposure of the implant through the skin is an emergency.
• Pain that escalates rather than settles, or pain that is not controlled by the plan you were given.
• Toes that turn pale, blue or cold, or that lose feeling or movement. This can signal pressure from swelling inside a tight cast or a circulation problem.
• New numbness or tingling that spreads or worsens after the initial anesthetic has worn off.
• Calf pain, swelling or tenderness in either leg, which the NHS lists among the warning signs of deep vein thrombosis, a clot in a leg vein.
• Sudden shortness of breath, chest pain, or coughing up blood, which can indicate a clot that has traveled to the lungs. Call emergency services immediately.
• A fall onto the operated leg, or a sudden change in the position or feel of the ankle inside the splint.

Later in recovery, and in the years afterward, report any new grinding, a sense that the joint has shifted, pain that returns after a period of comfort, or a change in the shape of the ankle. These can be early signs of loosening or wear that imaging can confirm.

When in doubt, call. The team would rather hear about a false alarm than miss an early problem, and the decision about what happens next is theirs to make with you.

Frequently asked questions

How long does it take to walk normally after ankle replacement?

A comfortable, aid-free walking pattern commonly emerges between three and six months, inside the six-month to one-year recovery window Johns Hopkins describes. Walking returns in layers: non-weight-bearing on crutches first, then steps in a boot, then shoes with gait retraining. Whether it feels fully normal depends on how long you limped beforehand, and improvement often continues past the first year.

Is ankle replacement a difficult surgery?

It is technically demanding for the surgeon because the joint is small, the skin over it is thin, and alignment must be precise. For the patient it is major orthopedic surgery with a long recovery, though not usually a physiologically stressful operation. Risks include wound healing problems, infection, nerve injury, fracture of the ankle knobs during bone cuts, clots, and later loosening or wear.

What is the most painful day after ankle surgery?

There is no single fixed day, but the first two to three days are typically the most intense. A regional nerve block often keeps the leg numb for the better part of a day, and when it wears off the full sensation arrives at once. Elevation, ice and the medicine plan set by the prescribing clinician are designed around this transition.

What not to do after ankle replacement surgery?

Do not bear weight before you are cleared, get the splint or wound wet, let the leg hang down for long periods, smoke, or change any prescribed medicine on your own. Avoid skipping physical therapy and avoid high-impact activity until a specific conversation with your surgeon. Keeping follow-up X-ray appointments matters even when the ankle feels fine.

What is the total ankle replacement recovery time?

Johns Hopkins describes complete recovery as six months to a year. The early weeks involve a splint or cast with no weight on the foot, followed by a boot with progressive weight-bearing and physical therapy from roughly six weeks to three months, then months of building endurance in ordinary shoes. Swelling at day’s end can persist for many months and is expected.

Ankle replacement vs fusion: which is better?

Neither is universally better. Replacement aims to relieve pain while preserving some up-and-down motion, at the cost of an implant that may loosen or wear. Fusion reliably relieves pain but eliminates motion at the ankle and may load neighboring joints over years. Age, weight, activity, bone quality and deformity guide the choice, which is made with the treating team.

What is actually removed during ankle replacement?

The surgeon removes the damaged cartilage and a thin, flat slice of bone from the lower end of the tibia and from the dome of the talus, along with bone spurs and inflamed joint lining. Only enough bone is taken to seat the implant, because preserving bone keeps future options such as revision or conversion to fusion available.

How long does ankle replacement surgery take?

MedlinePlus gives a typical range of two to three hours in the operating room. The time lengthens when additional procedures are done in the same sitting, such as lengthening a tight calf tendon, realigning the heel bone or repairing ligaments to steady the new joint. Anesthesia, positioning and recovery-room time are added to that.

How long will an ankle replacement last?

No one can promise a lifespan for an individual implant. Johns Hopkins notes that ankle implants have historically lasted less long than hip and knee implants, with improvements in design and technique over time. Durability depends on bone quality, alignment, body weight, activity level and factors not fully understood, which is why lifelong X-ray follow-up is standard.

Who should not have an ankle replacement?

Teams commonly advise against replacement, or ask people to wait, when there is active or previous joint infection, uncorrectable deformity, a collapsed talus, poorly controlled diabetes, nerve damage in the feet, current smoking, very heavy manual work or high-impact sport, or significant obesity. Several of these can be modified, and the recommendation is reviewed as circumstances change.

References

• MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Ankle replacement
• NHS: Osteoarthritis – Treatment
• NHS: Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

This article is for general information only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. Please consult a qualified doctor about your individual situation.