How Brain Shunt Surgery Is Done: The Ventricular Catheter, the Valve and the Abdominal Tunnel

The consent form is on the tray table, and the diagram the surgeon drew is still on the whiteboard: a circle for the head, a wavy line down the neck, a bigger circle for the belly. It looks almost too simple. That is usually the moment the real questions arrive. A tube from my brain to my stomach? For how long? Does it hurt? Will anyone be able to see it?

Understanding how VP shunt surgery is done takes most of the mystery out of that drawing. The operation has three parts that map exactly onto the picture: a catheter in the brain, a valve under the scalp, and a tunnel that carries a second catheter to the abdomen. Each part has a job, each has a failure mode, and each is worth understanding before you sign.

What follows is the walk-through most people wish they had been given, written from the evidence rather than from the corridors of any one hospital.

How VP shunt surgery is done, in one plain-language walk-through

Start with the problem the operation solves. Hydrocephalus is a build-up of cerebrospinal fluid, the clear liquid that cushions the brain and spinal cord, inside the ventricles, which are the connected chambers deep in the brain where that fluid is made. When the fluid cannot drain or be absorbed properly, pressure rises. A ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VP shunt) gives that fluid a new exit: a thin tube running from a ventricle to the peritoneal cavity, the lining-wrapped space in the abdomen that holds the bowel and can absorb fluid readily.

The surgery itself has a rhythm that surgeons describe in three moves. First, a small patch of hair is shaved and a short incision is made on the scalp, usually behind the ear or toward the top of the head. A burr hole, a coin-sized opening drilled through the skull, gives access. A flexible catheter about the width of a cooked spaghetti strand is guided into the ventricle, and fluid appears at the end to confirm the position.

Second, a valve is connected to that catheter and seated in a small pocket under the scalp or just behind the ear. The valve is a one-way regulator: it lets fluid leave the brain only when pressure rises above a set point, and it stops fluid running backward.

Third, a long, thin instrument is passed under the skin from the head, down the neck and chest, to a small incision on the abdomen. The distal catheter is threaded through this tunnel and its tip placed inside the peritoneal cavity, where the drained fluid is absorbed into the bloodstream. According to the NHS, the whole operation typically takes about one to two hours, and it is performed under general anesthesia, so the person is fully asleep throughout.

Why does cerebrospinal fluid need somewhere else to go?

Cerebrospinal fluid is not a stagnant pool. The brain makes it continuously, roughly enough to replace the whole volume several times a day, and it normally circulates through the ventricles, over the surface of the brain and spinal cord, and back into the bloodstream. Hydrocephalus is a plumbing problem somewhere in that loop, as the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) describes it.

The blockage or absorption failure can happen for many reasons. In babies, narrow passages between ventricles, bleeding in premature infants, or spina bifida are common causes. In adults, a tumor, a head injury, a bleed around the brain, meningitis, or the condition called normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) can be responsible. NPH is a form seen mainly in older adults in which the ventricles enlarge and the classic trio of walking difficulty, urinary urgency and thinking changes develops, even though measured pressure may sit near the normal range.

Whatever the cause, the brain cannot expand inside a closed skull. In infants whose skull bones have not yet fused, the head enlarges instead. In older children and adults, pressure rises. Left untreated, that pressure can damage brain tissue.

A shunt does not fix the underlying blockage. It bypasses it. This is the single most useful thing to understand about the operation, because it explains almost everything that follows: why the device is usually permanent, why it has moving parts that can fail, and why lifelong follow-up matters. The shunt is a detour, not a repair of the original road.

Who is usually offered a shunt, and who is usually asked to wait?

A VP shunt is the standard treatment for most types of hydrocephalus, from newborns to people in their eighties, according to NINDS and the NHS. The decision, though, is rarely made from a scan alone. Surgeons look for a combination of enlarged ventricles on imaging plus symptoms or signs that fit raised pressure or impaired fluid circulation.

People commonly offered a shunt fairly promptly include infants with rapidly enlarging heads and imaging that confirms hydrocephalus, children and adults with acute symptomatic hydrocephalus after bleeding, infection or a tumor, and adults with suspected NPH whose symptoms improve after a trial removal of fluid through a lumbar puncture, a needle test in the lower back that temporarily drains cerebrospinal fluid.

People more often asked to wait or to consider a different route include those whose ventricles are large on a scan but who have no symptoms and stable imaging over time, adults with suspected NPH who did not improve with a trial drainage, and anyone with an active infection, since implanting a device into an infected body is avoided wherever possible. Some people with a blockage at a specific point in the ventricular system are offered an endoscopic procedure instead of a shunt, discussed later in this article.

Age by itself is not a reason to withhold the operation. Mayo Clinic notes that shunting is used in older adults with NPH, and the assessment focuses on whether the symptoms are likely to be caused by the fluid problem rather than by another condition that mimics it. Every one of these judgments rests with the treating neurosurgical team, who weigh imaging, symptoms, test responses and overall health together.

What happens before VP shunt surgery?

The days before surgery are mostly about confirming the diagnosis and reducing avoidable risk. Imaging, usually a CT or MRI of the head, maps the ventricles and helps the surgeon plan where the catheter will enter. Blood tests check clotting and screen for infection. For suspected NPH, a lumbar puncture trial or a period of temporary external drainage may be arranged first, because the response predicts who is more likely to benefit.

You will be asked about every medicine and supplement you take. Blood-thinning medicines are the ones most often paused before brain surgery, but the timing and whether to stop them at all is a decision for the surgical team working with whoever prescribed them. Do not stop or change anything on your own.

Fasting instructions are standard for general anesthesia. Johns Hopkins describes a typical pre-operative routine: a small area of hair is clipped at the incision site, the skin over the head, neck, chest and abdomen is cleaned with antiseptic, and antibiotics are given through a vein before the first cut to lower infection risk.

In children, preparation includes the parents. A child life specialist or nurse may explain the operation with a doll and a toy tube, and the family is told what the incisions will look like. Parents are usually with the child until the anesthetic is started.

Ask, before the day arrives, what type of valve the surgeon plans to use, where the incisions will be, and whether the plan might change once they see the ventricles. Knowing the answers in advance makes the recovery ward less disorienting.

Step one: placing the ventricular catheter

Once you are asleep and positioned, the surgeon chooses an entry point. Two are common. A frontal approach enters near the hairline above the forehead and angles back into the front horn of a lateral ventricle. A parieto-occipital approach enters higher and further back, toward the crown behind the ear, and runs forward into the same chamber. Which is used depends on the shape of the ventricles, previous surgery and surgeon preference.

After the scalp incision, the surgeon drills a burr hole and opens the dura, the tough membrane that wraps the brain. A soft silicone catheter with small perforations near its tip is advanced a measured distance into the ventricle. The moment fluid drips from the open end is the confirmation that the tip sits in the fluid, not in brain tissue.

Many teams now use image guidance or a small ultrasound probe to steer the catheter, particularly when ventricles are small or the anatomy is distorted. Good tip placement matters because catheters that sit against the ventricle wall or drift into brain tissue are more likely to block later. The MedlinePlus description of the procedure notes that the catheter is placed through the brain into the ventricle and secured before the valve is connected.

This step usually takes only a few minutes, but it is the one with the highest stakes for the brain itself. Bleeding along the catheter track and injury to nearby tissue are the main risks, both uncommon in experienced hands but real, which is why they appear on every consent form.

Step two: the valve, and what a programmable valve actually does

The valve is the brain of the shunt, if the catheters are its plumbing. Its job is to open when pressure inside the head rises above a threshold and close when it falls, so the ventricles are drained enough but not too much. Overdrainage matters: if fluid leaves too fast, the ventricles collapse, the brain can pull away from the skull and small bleeds or severe positional headaches can follow. Underdrainage leaves the original symptoms untreated.

Valves fall into two broad families. Fixed-pressure valves open at one preset level chosen before implantation. Programmable, or adjustable, valves can have that threshold changed after surgery from outside the body, using a handheld magnetic tool held over the scalp. No needle and no operation are needed to adjust it. Mayo Clinic and Johns Hopkins both describe adjustable valves as an option that allows the drainage setting to be tuned to the person’s symptoms over time.

Neither type is universally better. Adjustable valves offer flexibility, which is helpful in NPH where the right setting is often found by trial. They also carry a practical caution: strong magnets, including some MRI scanners, can change the setting on certain models, so people with these valves are usually asked to have the setting checked after an MRI. Newer designs include locking mechanisms, but the check remains standard advice.

Many valves also include a small reservoir, a soft dome that a clinician can press to test flow or, with a fine needle, sample fluid if infection is suspected. Some include an anti-siphon device to reduce overdrainage when standing. Which combination the surgeon chooses is tailored to the diagnosis and is not a decision a patient is expected to make alone.

Step three: the abdominal tunnel and the peritoneal catheter

The tunnel is the part that sounds most alarming and is usually the least eventful. With the valve seated, the surgeon makes a small incision on the abdomen, most often on the right side or near the navel. A long, slender metal or plastic passer is then advanced beneath the skin from the head incision downward, staying in the fatty layer above the muscles as it passes behind the ear, down the side of the neck and across the chest. Sometimes a tiny relay incision is made at the collarbone or neck to redirect the passer around a curve.

The distal catheter is drawn through this track, connected to the valve, and its tip passed into the peritoneal cavity. Surgeons may use a small open incision through the abdominal wall or a laparoscopic camera to place the tip under direct vision. The catheter is left generously long, coiled loosely inside the abdomen, so that a growing child or a person who gains height has slack for years to come. The peritoneum absorbs the fluid into the bloodstream, where it is handled like any other body water.

Why the abdomen? It is roomy, it absorbs fluid efficiently and it is reachable without entering the chest or a major vein. When the abdomen is unsuitable, for example after extensive surgery or infection there, alternatives include routing the catheter to the right atrium of the heart through a neck vein (a ventriculoatrial shunt) or into the chest cavity around the lung (a ventriculopleural shunt), as MedlinePlus describes.

Once the pieces are joined and tested, each incision is closed with sutures or staples and dressed. A post-operative CT or X-ray series often confirms the catheter position from head to abdomen.

Is a VP shunt a major surgery?

The honest answer is that it sits in an unusual middle ground. In terms of operating time, incision size and physical recovery, VP shunt placement is one of the smaller neurosurgical operations. The NHS gives a typical duration of one to two hours, the incisions are a few centimeters each, and most people are walking the next day.

Judged by what is at stake, it is major. A catheter passes through the brain, a permanent device is implanted, and the person will depend on that device functioning for the rest of their life. Complications, when they happen, involve the brain or a central nervous system infection. That is why it is done by neurosurgeons in a full operating room, under general anesthesia, with pre-operative antibiotics and post-operative imaging.

A helpful way to hold both truths: the surgery is minor to live through and major to live with. Hospital stays are generally short, a few days according to the NHS, unless the hydrocephalus itself has left the person very unwell. Yet the shunt introduces a lifelong relationship with a neurosurgery service, an awareness of malfunction warning signs, and, for many, at least one further operation over a lifetime.

For families of infants, the scale often feels larger because the patient is small and the head incision is visible. Pediatric teams routinely perform the operation on babies weighing a few kilograms, and the steps are the same, adapted in scale.

Where a person lands on the spectrum depends on their overall health, the cause of the hydrocephalus and whether the operation is planned or urgent. Your surgical team can place your situation on that spectrum far better than any general article.

How painful is VP shunt surgery?

People are often surprised that the head is not the sorest part. The scalp incision and burr hole usually produce a dull, localized ache for a few days, manageable with the pain relief the ward provides. The brain itself has no pain receptors, so the catheter inside the ventricle is not felt.

The tunnel is a different story. The track under the skin of the neck and chest can feel bruised, tight or pulling for a week or two, particularly when turning the head or sitting up. Some describe a sensation like a taut cord along the side of the neck. This eases as the tissue settles around the catheter. Abdominal soreness at the lower incision is common and can be sharper with coughing, laughing or getting out of bed, much like after any small abdominal operation.

Headache in the first days can come from three sources: the incision, the anesthetic, and the change in pressure inside the head as the shunt begins to work. Headache that is worse when upright and better lying flat can suggest the shunt is draining too much; headache that builds relentlessly with vomiting or drowsiness can suggest it is not draining enough. Both are reasons to tell the team, not to wait.

Pain relief is planned individually. Which medicines are used, in what amounts and for how long is a matter for the prescribing clinician, and this article deliberately gives no doses. What you can control: keeping the incisions dry and undisturbed, moving early to prevent stiffness, and reporting pain that is rising rather than falling, because pain trajectory is one of the most useful signals a recovering patient can give.

VP shunt recovery time: what the first days and weeks usually look like

Recovery has a fairly predictable shape, even though the pace varies. The first night is usually spent on a neurosurgical or high-dependency ward with regular checks of alertness, pupils, limb strength and wound dressings. Many people are sitting out of bed and walking with help within a day.

The NHS notes that a stay of a few days is typical before going home, provided the person is eating, walking, passing urine and has stable neurological checks. Those who came in very unwell, or who have other medical problems, may stay longer. A CT scan before discharge is common to confirm catheter position and that ventricles are responding.

At home, the first two weeks are about wound care and pacing. Incisions are kept clean and dry until the team clears washing over them; staples or non-dissolving sutures are typically removed at about one to two weeks. Gentle walking is encouraged. Heavy lifting, straining and contact sports are usually restricted for several weeks, until the team confirms the wounds and the tunnel have healed.

Symptom improvement follows a different clock. Pressure headaches and nausea often ease within days. In NPH, walking often improves first, sometimes within weeks, while bladder control and thinking may take longer and improve less completely, as Mayo Clinic describes. In infants, head growth slows toward the normal curve over weeks. Not every symptom reverses, especially where pressure had already done lasting damage, and no team can promise a particular outcome.

A follow-up appointment with imaging is usually arranged within the first few weeks, then at intervals set by the team. If a programmable valve was used, the setting may be adjusted at these visits.

How many years does a VP shunt last? Malfunction and revision explained

There is no expiry date printed on a shunt, and no guaranteed lifespan either. Some people live for decades with the original device untouched. Others need a revision within months. What the evidence shows consistently, and what the NHS and NINDS both state plainly, is that shunts commonly stop working properly at some point and that many people need at least one further operation over a lifetime. Children shunted in infancy tend to need more revisions than adults, partly because they grow and partly because they simply have more years ahead with the device.

Malfunction has a short list of usual causes.

• Blockage. The ventricular catheter can clog with brain tissue, blood or protein; the abdominal end can be wrapped by scar tissue. Blockage is the most common failure.
• Infection. Most shunt infections appear within the first weeks to months after placement and often require the shunt to be removed, the infection treated, and a new shunt placed later.
• Disconnection or fracture. Catheters can separate at a connector or crack after years of movement, most often in the neck.
• Overdrainage or underdrainage. The valve may be set too low or too high for the person, causing positional headaches or recurring symptoms. Adjustable valves are designed to address this without surgery.
• Migration. Rarely, a catheter tip moves out of position.

Revision surgery replaces only the failing component where possible. A blocked ventricular catheter is exchanged through the original burr hole; a fractured neck segment is spliced with a new piece; a shortened abdominal catheter in a grown child is lengthened. Recovery from revision is often quicker than from the first operation because the tunnel already exists.

Knowing the failure signs, covered in the final section, is more valuable than any number of years quoted in a search result.

VP shunt vs ETV and other shunt routes: how the alternatives compare

A VP shunt is the most common treatment for hydrocephalus, but it is not the only one, and a good consultation includes a frank discussion of the alternatives that fit your anatomy. The NHS and NINDS describe the main options.

Option	What it involves	Usually considered when	Main trade-offs
Ventriculoperitoneal shunt	Ventricular catheter, valve, tunneled catheter to abdomen	Most types of hydrocephalus at any age, including NPH	Permanent implant; risk of blockage, infection and revision; valve adjustable in many cases
Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV)	A camera is passed into the third ventricle and a small opening made in its floor so fluid bypasses a blockage internally	Obstructive hydrocephalus where the blockage sits below the third ventricle; more often in older children and adults	No implanted device; can close over time; not suitable when absorption, not blockage, is the problem
Ventriculoatrial shunt	Distal catheter routed via a neck vein to the right atrium of the heart	When the abdomen cannot be used	Rare but serious cardiac and vascular complications; catheter needs lengthening in growing children
Ventriculopleural shunt	Distal catheter placed in the chest cavity around the lung	When abdomen and atrium are unsuitable	Fluid can collect around the lung; usually avoided in small children
Lumboperitoneal shunt	Catheter from the lower spinal fluid space to the abdomen	Communicating hydrocephalus or raised pressure without ventricular enlargement	Avoids the brain entirely; overdrainage and back-related failures more common

ETV deserves a specific word because people often ask why they were not offered it. It works only when the problem is a blockage that the new opening can bypass, and when the brain’s surface can still absorb the fluid. In NPH and post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus, absorption is the failing step, so ETV usually does not help. The surgical team weighs the imaging, the cause and the person’s age, and that judgment is theirs to explain.

What people often get wrong about VP shunts

The shunt fixes hydrocephalus. It controls it. The underlying blockage or absorption failure remains, which is why the device is usually needed for life and why symptoms return if it stops working.

You can feel the tube working. Fluid moving through the catheter is silent and imperceptible. What some people do feel is the tube itself under the skin of the neck, especially when thin, and a slight ridge where the valve sits behind the ear. Both are normal.

Airport scanners and phones will break the valve. Standard security scanners and everyday electronics have not been shown to alter valve settings. The genuine caution is strong magnetic fields, above all MRI scanners, which can change the setting on some programmable models. The NHS advises people with adjustable valves to tell imaging staff and to have the setting checked after an MRI. Carrying a shunt identification card makes this easier.

A working shunt means no more scans or appointments. Lifelong follow-up is standard precisely because malfunction can be silent at first, particularly in children who may not describe their symptoms well.

A shunt stops you living normally. Most people with well-functioning shunts attend school, work, exercise and travel. Contact sports and activities with a high risk of head or abdominal impact are discussed individually with the team rather than banned outright.

Shunt failure is always dramatic. Acute blockage can be sudden and severe, but many malfunctions creep in over weeks as a slowly worsening headache, subtle changes in walking or concentration, or a child who is simply not themselves. Gradual is still urgent.

Once a child is grown, the shunt is no longer needed. A minority of people become shunt-independent, but this can only be established under careful neurosurgical supervision. Removing or ignoring a shunt without that assessment is dangerous.

Questions to ask your care team about VP shunt surgery

The best consultations are the ones you walk out of with answers to the questions that will keep you awake otherwise. These are the ones surgeons say they are glad to be asked.

• Which type of hydrocephalus do I or my child have, and is a shunt the only realistic option, or is ETV or watchful monitoring on the table?
• Where exactly will the incisions be, and will the valve be visible or feelable under the skin?
• Will you use a fixed or adjustable valve, and why that choice for my situation?
• If the valve is adjustable, what should I do about MRI scans, and will I receive an identification card describing the device?
• What signs of malfunction or infection should I watch for, and who do I call at night or on weekends?
• How long do you expect I will be in hospital, and what restrictions apply to lifting, driving, work or school afterward?
• How will we know the shunt is working, and when is the first follow-up scan?
• Which of my current medicines, including blood thinners and supplements, need to be paused before surgery, and who will decide that?
• Which of my symptoms are likely to improve, which may not, and how soon might we know?
• For a child: how will the catheter be lengthened as they grow, and how often will you want to see them?
• What is the plan if the shunt becomes infected or blocks?

Write the answers down or ask permission to record the conversation. Bring someone with you if you can; two sets of ears catch more. If anything in the plan changes on the day of surgery, ask the team to walk you through why before you go to the anesthetic room.

When to call your doctor

A shunt is designed to be forgotten most of the time and remembered instantly when it matters. The signs below, drawn from NHS and MedlinePlus guidance, warrant a same-day call to the neurosurgical team, or emergency care if severe or rapidly worsening.

Signs of shunt blockage or raised pressure: headache that steadily worsens or does not respond to usual measures; vomiting, especially in the morning or without nausea; increasing drowsiness, confusion or difficulty waking; new vision changes such as blurring or double vision; a return of the symptoms that led to the shunt in the first place, including changes in walking or balance; and in babies, a bulging or tense soft spot, rapid head growth, irritability, poor feeding, downward-deviated eyes or a high-pitched cry.

Signs of infection: fever without another clear cause; redness, warmth, swelling or leaking fluid along any incision or along the line of the tunnel in the neck, chest or abdomen; abdominal pain or tenderness; and neck stiffness with fever.

Signs of overdrainage: headache that is markedly worse standing and relieved by lying flat, particularly if new after surgery or after a valve adjustment.

Seizures at any point after surgery require urgent medical assessment.

Do not wait to see whether a gradual change settles. Many malfunctions are slow, and the people who do best are those who were seen early. If you have a programmable valve and have recently had an MRI, mention it when you call, because a changed setting is an easily corrected cause of new symptoms. Every judgment about whether the shunt is the culprit, and what to do about it, sits with the treating neurosurgical team, who have your imaging history in front of them.

Frequently asked questions

How painful is VP shunt surgery?

Most people describe moderate soreness rather than severe pain. The scalp incision aches for a few days, the tunneled catheter can make the neck and chest feel bruised or tight for a week or two, and the abdominal incision hurts with coughing or sitting up, much like other small abdominal operations. The brain itself has no pain receptors. Pain relief is planned by the ward team, and pain that rises instead of easing should be reported promptly.

Is a VP shunt a major surgery?

Physically it is one of the smaller neurosurgical operations, taking about one to two hours with short incisions and a hospital stay of a few days according to the NHS. In terms of stakes it is major: a catheter passes through the brain and a permanent device is implanted. A useful way to think about it is minor to live through and major to live with, because lifelong follow-up and possible revisions come with it.

How long does it take to recover from VP shunt surgery?

Most people are walking within a day and home within a few days, per NHS guidance. Wound healing and sutures or staples take roughly one to two weeks, and heavier lifting or contact activity is usually restricted for several weeks until the team confirms healing. Symptom improvement follows its own timeline: pressure headaches often ease in days, while walking, bladder and thinking changes in normal pressure hydrocephalus can take weeks or longer and may not fully reverse.

How many years does a VP shunt last?

There is no fixed lifespan. Some shunts function for decades; others need revision within months. The NHS and NINDS both state that malfunction is common and that many people, particularly those shunted in infancy, need at least one further operation over their lifetime. Blockage is the usual cause, followed by infection and disconnection. Knowing the warning signs of failure matters more than any average number of years.

What are the VP shunt procedure steps in order?

After general anesthesia and antiseptic preparation, the surgeon makes a scalp incision and a burr hole, places a catheter into a ventricle and confirms fluid flow, connects a valve seated under the scalp, tunnels a passer beneath the skin from head to abdomen, threads the distal catheter through it and into the peritoneal cavity, tests the system, then closes each incision. Imaging afterward usually confirms the position of the whole device.

Can I have an MRI with a VP shunt?

Usually yes, with precautions. Shunt materials are generally compatible with MRI, but the strong magnetic field can change the setting on some programmable valves. Standard advice from the NHS is to tell the imaging team you have a shunt, carry your device identification card, and have the valve setting checked and reset if needed after the scan. Fixed-pressure valves are not affected in this way.

Will the shunt be visible under my skin?

In most people the shunt is not obvious to others. The valve sits as a small ridge behind the ear or on the scalp, usually covered by hair, and the tunneled catheter may be felt as a thin cord along the side of the neck, more noticeable in slim people and children. Incision scars are a few centimeters long and fade over months. Surgeons can discuss incision placement before the operation.

What does a programmable shunt valve do?

It lets the team change the pressure at which the valve opens without another operation, using a handheld magnetic device held over the scalp. This is useful when the ideal drainage level is uncertain, as in normal pressure hydrocephalus, or when symptoms suggest over- or underdrainage. The trade-off is sensitivity to strong external magnets, which is why settings are checked after MRI scans on many models.

Why was I offered a shunt instead of ETV?

Endoscopic third ventriculostomy creates an internal bypass and only works when the hydrocephalus is caused by a blockage below the third ventricle and the brain can still absorb fluid normally. In normal pressure hydrocephalus, after bleeding or infection, and in most infants, the absorption step is the problem, so a shunt is the more appropriate treatment. The neurosurgical team makes this call from your imaging and the cause of your condition.

Does a VP shunt need to be replaced as a child grows?

Often not entirely. Surgeons leave a generous length of catheter coiled inside the abdomen so it uncoils as the child grows. Even so, many children eventually need the abdominal catheter lengthened or another component revised, and blockage or disconnection can occur at any age. Regular pediatric neurosurgical follow-up is standard so that growth-related and other problems are caught early.

References

• Ventriculoperitoneal shunt, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
• Hydrocephalus: Treatment, NHS
• Hydrocephalus, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

This article is for general information only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. Please consult a qualified doctor about your individual situation.